ENVIRONMENTAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES
IN THE USE OF STONE AS A PAVING MATERIAL
We must address the two questions as they affect the choice of materials for public space use. Environmentally, what are the relevant points concerning the choice of material? Ethically, how should we view the moral issues of importing from developing countries?
Environmental issues
In order to provide a street surface acceptable for use, we have no option but to use some of the earth's resources. We do have a duty to reduce that usage in all circumstances, but particularly so if the raw materials are limited. Consideration has to be over the whole aspect of raw material use including the fossil fuel energy used in manufacturing and transport.
The calculations that could be done to demonstrate in a particular situation that one solution is better than another are potentially extensive, but the principles are relatively simple and one can draw conclusions of a general nature from an understanding of the logic involved.
The nature of the use
The paved environment is the most severe test of any material, technically more demanding than that for a building stone. Not only does it have to remain looking good and deal with the vagaries of weather, freezing and thawing, wind and rain, but it has to withstand the wear and tear from many feet and/or vehicular traffic. The pavement alone has to bear stiletto heels, skaters, skateboarders and the general use and abuse from delivery vehicles and others who may drive on it. In some circumstances, the surface must also resist oil from vehicles and fat from fast food shops. The choice of material is not just dependent upon the appearance, but also which of these quality attributes are the most important.
To assess the optimum solution, we need to assess the matter over the lifetime of the project or, if the use of the space will outlast the longest-lasting materials, over the life of the longest-lasting material. We have to choose the solution that will both stay looking good and remain technically competent throughout this period.
Life of materials
Many man-made products have a relatively finite life from a technical viewpoint and an even shorter one from an aesthetic viewpoint.
Natural stone of a competent type will last for an immense length of time providing it is competently designed and laid. Furthermore, it has a fortunate tendency to improve in appearance with use and time.
It would not be unreasonable to suggest that many town centre improvements with man-made products look so down-at-heel after 10-15 years that replacement cannot be avoided
There are many examples of granite setts and kerbs and York, Caithness or Pennant flags in Britain that look better now than when new 100 or more years ago and which will continue to do so almost indefinitely.
If the intention is to design a permanent paving/streetscape, then it is quite reasonable to assume that in the life of the stone, the man-made products will need replacing five times. Furthermore, it is then necessary, to undertake a lot of work beyond just the re-supply of the materials.
Raw material and fossil fuel use
All concrete, tarmac and clay products come from the earth. They also use major amounts of fossil fuel energy in their manufacture. Stone may use some energy when sawn, but none if hand-worked.
Generally, the most economical stone paving comes from far afield but the large distances are covered by sea. The use of energy in shipping is tiny compared with road or rail transport and it is why international trade is possible. It has been so from time immemorial and remains the same today. The energy consumption for sea transport is insignificant compared to the other energy considerations and can be ignored. It is intelligent to use the most suitable stone and to utilise the most efficient means of transport to place that stone where it can be most effectively utilised. Such a course of action represents the most efficient use of the Earth's resources in every respect.
Summary
Without any doubt, the natural stone under consideration will utilise considerably less fossil fuel energy and less volume dug from the Earth than the equivalent manufactured products. Stone will, however, typically last five times as long so uses less than 20% of the earth's resources to achieve the same end. It is in paving the streetscape that this issue is most important for it is here that the relative virtues of stone are most obvious. All those with the aim of achieving sustainability should use it whenever possible. The world is not covered with stone of ideal formation for easy cutting, though there is plenty of it in certain places. It should, however, be used for paving even over and above any other application, as this is where the greatest savings in the use of the earth's resources can be made.
Ethical issues
Let us imagine a situation after the Second World War, when we were struggling industrially in every possible way. Our first consideration was not Health and Safety nor was it the hours people work. We were concerned, rightly, that our children were educated and not made to work excessively but we still allowed them to undertake part-time activities delivering, working on farms or in small shops. How would we have responded if, instead of encouraging our recovery and development in such a far-sighted fashion, the United States had declared that, unless all our companies had full H & S procedures rigorously enforced together with restricted hours and all the other regulations we associate with a modern society, they would purchase nothing? We would call this isolationism and protectionism, the very causes of world discord.
The situation of India, China and many other developing countries today is not at all unlike the position we were in at that time relative to the United States. We have the opportunity to encourage their development so that their inhabitants will have reasonable prosperity or we can turn our backs. In the long run, this would be calamity for us all. We must buy those goods and services in which they excel, they in turn will then be able to afford to acquire the technology and products of the developed economies. If we fail to so purchase, they will have no jobs and no income as distinct from imperfect jobs and some income. It is possible to make a case against trading with a brutal dictatorship as has been done with Iraq with the aim of fomenting internal dissension and the fall of the regime. It has not succeeded and has resulted in great suffering for those people. China and India do not come into that category in any case. Underdeveloped nations and their peoples have a moral right to move towards global equality using the resources and abilities they possess. A natural balance should be allowed to evolve whereby those able to manufacture particular products most efficiently can market them freely and so catch up in the international race we must all run and which should be run fairly.
We should also ask ourselves about the reaction of other peoples when we seek to impose our particular ethics. Other countries have their own values, which could be superior or inferior to ours, this being a matter of one's viewpoint. How would we react if, say, the Indians declined to buy our exports because we allow our children to eat beef or the Chinese, say, because they consider our use of a fork to be unhygienic compared to chopsticks? To them, this is how we behave. If, however, we genuinely wish to change their beliefs and attitudes, frequent contact and mutually beneficial trade can best achieve this.
In the personal contacts between business people, there are opportunities to discuss ethics from a position of mutual respect. In my own case, I have seen the operation of machines in Europe, which I regarded as unnecessarily unsafe. I encouraged the change of these practices which could be achieved without great cost and which could reduce the level of accidents and also the cost of those accidents to the company concerned. It is not just China and India that do not reach our ideas of best practice. Nevertheless it is my firm opinion that by purchasing from these developing countries we will enable them to improve their standards of living and at the same time we can have some discreet influence over their workplace practices. And, further, it is clearly in the subject of granite and stone production generally where there is great expertise in those countries, often greater expertise than is possessed by western countries. The skills of their craftsmen are considerable. If we do not buy what these countries are so good at, then we are being both very selfish and short-sighted. All people with a conscience should be urging the purchase of products from developing countries on all occasions when it is practical and reasonably economical.
Personally, while not wishing to be seen to be overbearing and thus rejected, I encourage safer working practices and quietly check that there are no children in serious employ, children who should be at school. We seek to deal with companies and people who are reasonable.
Having written mostly with China and India in mind, many would not necessarily consider Portugal or Spain to be as fully developed as Northern European countries. The process of development continues there as elsewhere providing we continue to buy from them. There are instances of children assisting in the production of setts in Portugal. It so happens that we buy our material from a major producer rather than an intermediary who subcontracts to and collects from many small producers so, for us, the issue does not arise. But even when it does, I do not think the situation where children assist their parents is to be discouraged. We, in Britain, condone children working on farms, indeed we consider they are very lucky to grow up in contact with their parents instead of being latchkey kids.
General conclusions
The best possible way to assist those developing peoples in their lives is to provide them with export opportunities on every practical occasion. Natural stone provides that opportunity.
Considered over the life of the project, natural stone will use far less of the earth's resources than a comparable manufactured product. Public paving is the area where this is the most extreme situation and where stone should be used as a first priority.
Michael Heap
CED Ltd
Issue Date: 14th July 2003
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